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An even larger number of ethnic Mongols were tortured or beaten to death, died of sexual violence, worked to death in labour camps or committed suicide, but were unrecorded. Recent researchers estimate that the Red Guards killed about 100,000 to 300,000 Mongols during the Cultural Revolution.
The rise of the barbarian kingdoms in the territory previously governed by the Western Roman Empire was a gradual, complex, and largely unintentional process. [11] Their origin can ultimately be traced to the migrations of large numbers of barbarian (i.e. non-Roman) peoples into the territory of the Roman Empire.
Rashid Al-Din, a historian of the Mongol Ilkhanate, explicitly states in the Ilkhanate's official histories that the Mongols were not even aware of Ogedei's death when they began their withdrawal. [62] Al-Din, writing under the auspices of the Mongol Empire, had access to the official Mongol chronicle when compiling his history, the Altan ...
Zhou dynasty cosmography of Huaxia and the Four Barbarians.. Ancient China was composed of a group of states that arose in the Yellow River valley. According to historian Li Feng, during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1041–771 BCE), the contrast between the 'Chinese' Zhou and the 'non-Chinese' Xirong or Dongyi was "more political than cultural or ethnic". [6]
The Mongols routed city defenders and massacred inhabitants of capital Thăng Long . King Than Tong agreed to pay tributes to Möngke Khan to spare his country. At the same time, the Mongols were unable to withstand the tropical heat, mosquitoes and malaria. So they retreated after securing a promise of tribute from the king.
The major battles were the siege of Baghdad, when the Mongols sacked the city which had been the center of Islamic power for 500 years, and the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 in south-eastern Galilee, when the Muslim Bahri Mamluks were able to defeat the Mongols and decisively halt their advance for the first time.
The Mongols brought about changes in the economic power of states and overall trade. In the religious sphere, St. Paphnutius of Borovsk was the grandson of a Mongol baskak , or tax collector, while a nephew of Khan Bergai of the Golden Horde converted to Christianity and became known as the monk St. Peter Tsarevich of the Horde.
As usual, the artisans were sent back to Mongolia, young women and children were given to the Mongol soldiers as slaves, and the rest of the population was massacred. The Persian scholar Juvayni states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were given the task of executing twenty-four Gurganj citizens each, which would mean that 1.2 million people were ...