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Biological carbon fixation is a fundamental process that sustains life on Earth by regulating atmospheric CO 2 levels, supporting the growth of plants and other photosynthetic organisms, and maintaining ecological balance.
C 3 carbon fixation occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin–Benson cycle. (In C 4 and CAM plants, carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air.) Cross section of a C 3 plant, specifically of an Arabidopsis thaliana leaf. Vascular bundles shown.
C 4 carbon fixation or the Hatch–Slack pathway is one of three known photosynthetic processes of carbon fixation in plants. It owes the names to the 1960s discovery by Marshall Davidson Hatch and Charles Roger Slack. [1] C 4 fixation is an addition to the ancestral and more common C 3 carbon fixation.
Maize (Zea mays, Poaceae) is the most widely cultivated C 4 plant.[1]In botany, C 4 carbon fixation is one of three known methods of photosynthesis used by plants. C 4 plants increase their photosynthetic efficiency by reducing or suppressing photorespiration, which mainly occurs under low atmospheric CO 2 concentration, high light, high temperature, drought, and salinity.
The pineapple is an example of a CAM plant.. Crassulacean acid metabolism, also known as CAM photosynthesis, is a carbon fixation pathway that evolved in some plants as an adaptation to arid conditions [1] that allows a plant to photosynthesize during the day, but only exchange gases at night.
C4 plants have developed the C4 carbon fixation pathway to conserve water loss, thus are more prevalent in hot, sunny, and dry climates. [20] These plants differ from C3 plants because CO 2 is initially converted to a four-carbon molecule, malate, which is shuttled to bundle sheath cells, released back as CO 2 and
C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates—corn, for example. Furthermore, RuBisCOs catalyzing the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis generally exhibit an improved specificity for CO 2 relative to O 2 , in order to minimize the oxygenation ...
Some plants, many algae, and photosynthetic bacteria have overcome this limitation by devising means to increase the concentration of carbon dioxide around the enzyme, including C 4 carbon fixation, crassulacean acid metabolism, and the use of pyrenoid. Rubisco side activities can lead to useless or inhibitory by-products.