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Sowell writes that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups [i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action] to take advantage of group preference policies; that they tend to benefit primarily the most fortunate among the preferred group (e.g., upper and middle class ...
Executive Order 10925, signed by President John F. Kennedy on March 6, 1961, required government contractors, except in special circumstances, to "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin".
Executive Order 11246 was an executive order of the Article II branch of the U.S. Federal government, in place from 1965 to 2025, specifying non-discriminatory practices and affirmative action in federal government hiring and employment.
James defined what affirmative action is in its most basic form. "(It) is a policy that encourages state institutions to take affirmative action to make sure their processes are fair," she explains.
Affirmative action was extended to sex by Executive Order 11375 which amended Executive Order 11246 on 13 October 1967, by adding "sex" to the list of protected categories. In the U.S. affirmative action's original purpose was to pressure institutions into compliance with the nondiscrimination mandate of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Economic historian Stuart Jones called the book a "brilliant empirical study of affirmative action" and stated that it "deserves to be read widely, especially by politicians and development economists." [5] A review in the International Journal of Legal Information wrote that "Affirmative Action around the World is an informative, well-written ...
Pages in category "Affirmative action in the United States" The following 18 pages are in this category, out of 18 total. This list may not reflect recent changes .
The dissent argued that using race as a factor in admission decisions was in fact a way to promote a quota system and that it should be illegal now, not in 25 years to use racial affirmative action plans. Before this case, the compelling interest required to justify affirmative action has been correcting the effects of historic discrimination.