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The soiling rate (see definition below) varies from season to season and from location to location, but is typically between 0%/day and 1%/day. [1] However, average deposition rates as high as 2.5%/day have been observed for conventional photovoltaics in China. [1] For concentrated solar power, soiling rates as high 5%/day have been observed. [1]
The solar energy to electrical power conversion efficiency is the product of several factors: the fraction of solar energy captured (accounting for optical losses in the solar concentration system), the heating efficiency (accounting for thermal losses in the element receiving the solar energy), and the thermal conversion efficiency (the ...
An example of a Low Concentration PV Cell's surface, showing the glass lensing. Low concentration PV are systems with a solar concentration of 2–100 suns. [37] For economic reasons, conventional or modified silicon solar cells are typically used. The heat flux is typically low enough that the cells do not need to be actively cooled.
where solar intensity external to the Earth's atmosphere = 1.353 kW/m 2, and the factor of 1.1 is derived assuming that the diffuse component is 10% of the direct component. [13] This formula fits comfortably within the mid-range of the expected pollution-based variability:
The solar coverage rate is the percentage of an amount of energy that is provided by the sun. This may be in reference to a solar thermal installation or a photovoltaic installation, i.e. a calculation of solar heat, electricity or total energy produced. The observation period is typically one year.
The Streeter–Phelps equation determines the relation between the dissolved oxygen concentration and the biological oxygen demand over time and is a solution to the linear first order differential equation [1]
The Trophic State Index (TSI) is a classification system designed to rate water bodies based on the amount of biological productivity they sustain. [1] Although the term "trophic index" is commonly applied to lakes, any surface water body may be indexed. The TSI of a water body is rated on a scale from zero to one hundred. [1]
An emission intensity (also carbon intensity or C.I.) is the emission rate of a given pollutant relative to the intensity of a specific activity, or an industrial production process; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced, or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product (GDP).