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Insulin is a peptide hormone containing two chains cross-linked by disulfide bridges. Insulin (/ ˈ ɪ n. sj ʊ. l ɪ n /, [5] [6] from Latin insula, 'island') is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets encoded in humans by the insulin (INS) gene. It is the main anabolic hormone of the body. [7]
[2] [9] The beta cells can still secrete insulin but the body has developed a resistance and its response to insulin has declined. [4] It is believed to be due to the decline of specific receptors on the surface of the liver , adipose , and muscle cells which lose their ability to respond to insulin that circulates in the blood.
But sometimes the body acts against itself. In this second case, the insulin binds with the proteins that are supposed to tag antigens (substances or fragments of cells) which are foreign to the body (i.e., antibodies). If the insulin is an injected form and not made internally, the body may see the insulin as an outside or "foreign" substance.
The endocrine part secretes insulin when the blood sugar becomes high; insulin moves glucose from the blood into the muscles and other tissues for use as energy. The endocrine part releases glucagon when the blood sugar is low; glucagon allows stored sugar to be broken down into glucose by the liver in order to re-balance the sugar levels.
Insulin and glucagon influence blood sugar levels. Glucagon is released when the blood glucose level is low and stimulates the liver to release glucose into the blood. Insulin increases the rate of glucose uptake and metabolism by most body cells. Somatostatin is released by delta cells and acts as an inhibitor of GH, insulin, and glucagon.
In males, Testes release sperm through the vas deferens, which is part of the reproductive system. In females, Ovaries release ova which travel through the oviducts to the uterus . So, the heterocrine nature of gonads involves their dual role in hormone secretion (endocrine) and the release of reproductive cells (exocrine), making them crucial ...
The insulin receptor (IR) is a transmembrane receptor that is activated by insulin, IGF-I, IGF-II and belongs to the large class of receptor tyrosine kinase. [5] Metabolically, the insulin receptor plays a key role in the regulation of glucose homeostasis; a functional process that under degenerate conditions may result in a range of clinical manifestations including diabetes and cancer.
Enteroendocrine cells are specialized cells of the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas with endocrine function. They produce gastrointestinal hormones or peptides in response to various stimuli and release them into the bloodstream for systemic effect, diffuse them as local messengers, or transmit them to the enteric nervous system to activate nervous responses.