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Neurosecretion is the release of extracellular vesicles and particles from neurons, astrocytes, microglial and other cells of the central nervous system. These neurohormones , produced by neurosecretory cells, are normally secreted from nerve cells in the brain that then circulate into the blood.
The nervous and endocrine systems often act together in a process called neuroendocrine integration, to regulate the physiological processes of the human body. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the hypothalamus , controls secretion of pituitary gland hormones, and has subsequently expanded to investigate ...
Specialized groups of neuroendocrine cells can be found at the base of the third ventricle in the brain (in a region called the hypothalamus). This area controls most anterior pituitary cells and thereby regulates functions in the entire body, like responses to stress , cold, sleep , and the reproductive system .
[3] [4] During these early vesicle stages, the walls of the neural tube contain neural stem cells in a region called the neuroepithelium or ventricular zone. These neural stem cells divide rapidly, driving growth of the early brain, but later, these stem cells begin to generate neurons through the process of neurogenesis .
The gastrula has the shape of a disk with three layers of cells, an inner layer called the endoderm, which gives rise to the lining of most internal organs, a middle layer called the mesoderm, which gives rise to the bones and muscles, and an outer layer called the ectoderm, which gives rise to the skin and nervous system. [77]
Different portions of the neural tube form by two different processes, called primary and secondary neurulation, in different species. [4] In primary neurulation, the neural plate creases inward until the edges come in contact and fuse. In secondary neurulation, the tube forms by hollowing out of the interior of a solid precursor.
The neural tube develops in two ways: primary neurulation and secondary neurulation. Primary neurulation divides the ectoderm into three cell types: The internally located neural tube; The externally located epidermis; The neural crest cells, which develop in the region between the neural tube and epidermis but then migrate to new locations
For example, children with learning difficulties have been found to exhibit persistent primitive reflexes. [25] In addition, a persistent ATNR has been found to be associated with lower reading and spelling scores, [26] and children with reading problems tend to display the tonic labyrinthine reflex more than children without reading problems. [27]