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Section through railway track and foundation showing the sub-grade. Grading in civil engineering and landscape architectural construction is the work of ensuring a level base, or one with a specified slope, [1] for a construction work such as a foundation, the base course for a road or a railway, or landscape and garden improvements, or surface drainage.
l = slope length α = angle of inclination. The grade (US) or gradient (UK) (also called stepth, slope, incline, mainfall, pitch or rise) of a physical feature, landform or constructed line is either the elevation angle of that surface to the horizontal or its tangent. It is a special case of the slope, where zero indicates horizontality. A ...
Surveying equipment, such as levels and theodolites, are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerisation, electronic distance measurement (EDM) , total stations , GNSS surveying and laser scanning have supplemented (and to a large extent supplanted) the traditional optical ...
Common levelling instruments include the spirit level, the dumpy level, the digital level, and the laser level. Levelling staff – specialized measuring stick or vertical staff used with the dumpy level, held by a second person while the operator of the level looks through it and takes readings off of the staff. Also call a rod.
The Y level or wye level is the oldest and bulkiest of the older style optical instruments. A low-powered telescope is placed in a pair of clamp mounts, and the instrument then leveled using a spirit level, which is mounted parallel to the main telescope. The term dumpy level (also builder's level) endures despite the evolution in design. They ...
Escarpment – Steep slope or cliff separating two relatively level regions (scarp) Esker – Long, winding ridge of stratified sand and gravel associated with former glaciers; Estuary – Partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water; Exhumed river channel – Ridge of sandstone that remains when the softer flood plain mudstone is eroded away
Soil nails were used to stabilize an 18 metres (59 ft) high slope consisting of sandy soil. This method proved to be more cost-effective, while at the same time cut down the construction time when compared to other conventional support methods. [4]: 23 Germany was the next country to investigate soil nailing.
In civil engineering, concrete leveling is a procedure that attempts to correct an uneven concrete surface by altering the foundation that the surface sits upon. It is a cheaper alternative to having replacement concrete poured and is commonly performed at small businesses and private homes as well as at factories, warehouses, airports and on roads, highways and other infrastructure.