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Hypersensitive response (HR) is a mechanism used by plants to prevent the spread of infection by microbial pathogens.HR is characterized by the rapid death of cells in the local region surrounding an infection and it serves to restrict the growth and spread of pathogens to other parts of the plant.
Plants have evolved R genes (resistance genes) whose products mediate resistance to specific virus, bacteria, oomycete, fungus, nematode or insect strains. R gene products are proteins that allow recognition of specific pathogen effectors, either through direct binding or by recognition of the effector's alteration of a host protein. [ 6 ]
A person cannot become resistant to antibiotics. Resistance is a property of the microbe, not a person or other organism infected by a microbe. [14] All types of microbes can develop drug resistance. Thus, there are antibiotic, antifungal, antiviral and antiparasitic resistance. [4] [8] Antibiotic resistance is a subset of antimicrobial resistance.
Antimicrobial resistance The misuse and overuse of antimicrobials in humans, animals and plants are the main drivers in the development of drug-resistant pathogens. [4] It is estimated that bacterial antimicrobial resistance (AMR) was directly responsible for 1.27 million global deaths in 2019 and contributed to 4.95 million deaths.
Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the outbreak and spread of infectious diseases. [10] A disease triangle describes the basic factors required for plant diseases. These are the host plant, the pathogen, and the environment. Any one of these can be modified to control a disease. [11]
Resistance genes (R-Genes) are genes in plant genomes that convey plant disease resistance against pathogens by producing R proteins. The main class of R-genes consist of a nucleotide binding domain (NB) and a leucine rich repeat (LRR) domain(s) and are often referred to as (NB-LRR) R-genes or NLRs. [ 1 ]
Knowing what genes cause antibiotic resistance -- and where they are in the body -- is critical for preventing further antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic resistance: new discovery could change the ...
The resistome was first used to describe the resistance capabilities of bacteria preventing the effectiveness of antibiotics . [4] [5] Although antibiotics and their accompanying antibiotic resistant genes come from natural habitats, before next-generation sequencing, most studies of antibiotic resistance had been confined to the laboratory. [6]