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Akathisia is generally associated with antipsychotics, but was previously described in Parkinson's disease and other neuropsychiatric disorders. [5] It can also present with the use of non-psychiatric medications, including calcium channel blockers , antibiotics , anti-nausea and anti-vertigo drugs .
Extrapyramidal symptoms are most commonly caused by typical antipsychotic drugs that antagonize dopamine D2 receptors. [2] The most common typical antipsychotics associated with EPS are haloperidol and fluphenazine. [4] Atypical antipsychotics have lower D2 receptor affinity or higher serotonin 5-HT2A receptor affinity which lead to lower rates ...
Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is an iatrogenic disorder that results in involuntary repetitive body movements, which may include grimacing, sticking out the tongue or smacking the lips, [1] which occurs following treatment with medication. [6] [7] Additional motor symptoms include chorea or athetosis. [1]
Late-onset dyskinesia, also known as tardive dyskinesia, occurs after long-term treatment with an antipsychotic drug such as haloperidol (Haldol) or amoxapine (Asendin). The symptoms include tremors and writhing movements of the body and limbs, and abnormal movements in the face, mouth, and tongue – including involuntary lip smacking, repetitive pouting of the lips, and tongue protrusions.
Antipsychotics, previously known as neuroleptics [1] and major tranquilizers, [2] are a class of psychotropic medication primarily used to manage psychosis (including delusions, hallucinations, paranoia or disordered thought), principally in schizophrenia but also in a range of other psychotic disorders.
Movement disorders are clinical syndromes with either an excess of movement or a paucity of voluntary and involuntary movements, unrelated to weakness or spasticity. [1] Movement disorders present with extrapyramidal symptoms and are caused by basal ganglia disease . [ 2 ]
Antipsychotics cause an increased calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells which can result in rigidity and eventual cell breakdown. No major studies have reported an explanation for the abnormal EEG , but it is likely also attributable to dopamine blockage leading to changes in neuronal pathways.
Acute movement disorder: 3.5 times more likely to cause easily reversible but unpleasant severe stiffening of muscles, around 6% with chlorpromazine: RR 3.5 CI 1.5 to 8.0 Parkinsonism: 2 times more likely to cause parkinsonism (symptoms such as tremor, hesitancy of movement, decreased facial expression), around 17% with chlorpromazine