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Pancreatic polypeptide cells are most active and secrete more pancreatic polypeptide after a meal with high protein, fasting, physical activity, and acute hypoglycemia. These same cells are inhibited by somatostatin, an inhibitory gastrointestinal hormone, and the presence of glucose. [5] Pancreatic Polypeptide From a Mouse Cell
Immunohistochemistry for pancreatic polypeptide in a mouse pancreas, 200×. Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is a polypeptide secreted by PP cells in the endocrine pancreas.It is a hormone and it regulates pancreatic secretion activities, and also impacts liver glycogen storage and gastrointestinal secretion.
While MFGM makes up only an estimated 2% to 6% of the total milk fat globule, [1] it is an especially rich phospholipid source, accounting for the majority of total milk phospholipids. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] In contrast, the inner core of the milk fat globule is composed predominantly of triacylglycerols.
The endocrine cells constitute the beta cells which make insulin, alpha cells which secrete glucagon, delta cells which secrete somatostatin and the PP-cells which secrete pancreatic polypeptide. [3] Pancreatic progenitor cells have been shown to arise from cells originating from the developing foregut during mammalian development.
Vasoactive intestinal peptide, also known as vasoactive intestinal polypeptide or VIP, is a peptide hormone that is vasoactive in the intestine. VIP is a peptide of 28 amino acid residues that belongs to a glucagon/secretin superfamily, the ligand of class II G protein–coupled receptors. [5]
Alpha cells are endocrine cells, meaning they secrete a hormone, in this case glucagon. Alpha cells store this glucagon in secretory vesicles that typically have an electron dense core and a grayish outer edge. [1] It is believed that alpha cells make up approximately 20% of endocrine cells within the pancreas. [1]
In petrels, the proventriculus is much larger and the mucus secretions are arranged into longitudinal ridges, which creates more surface area and more concentrated cells. These secrete a stomach oil, which is common in birds; it usually consists of undigested fatty acids, but can vary depending on the diet. [10]
Delta cells comprise ca 5% of the cells in the islets [1] but may interact with many more islet cells than suggested by their low numbers. In rodents, delta-cells are located in the periphery of the islets; in humans the islet architecture is generally less organized and delta-cells are frequently observed inside the islets as well. [2]