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On 27 May, Spain and England signed the Treaty of Madrid, followed, on 31 July, by the Treaty of Breda, which ended the Anglo-Dutch War. That led to the 1668 Triple Alliance between England, the Dutch Republic and Sweden, which forced France to return most of its conquests in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. [11]
The Dutch intervened in the Sinhalese–Portuguese War on Ceylon from 1638 onward, initially as allies of the Kingdom of Kandy against Portugal. The Dutch conquered Batticaloa in 1639 and Galle in 1640 before the alliance broke down. After a period of triangular warfare between the Dutch, Portuguese, and Kandyans, the alliance was remade in 1649.
A good deal of the conflict can be attributed to the fact that Spain and the Dutch Republic were concurrently engaged in the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), and, ever since hostilities between Portugal and the Dutch Republic erupted in 1602, Portugal had been ruled by a Spanish monarch.
The Dutch declared their independence from the Habsburg king of Spain in 1579, which resulted in war. In 1580, the Iberian Union , which combined the crowns of Spain and Portugal, was formed. Subsequently, king Philip closed Portuguese ports to the Dutch and established a ban on trade between the Portuguese-Spanish colonies and the Dutch Republic.
In March 1667, France and Portugal signed the Treaty of Lisbon, a ten-year offensive and defensive alliance against Spain. On 24 May, French troops entered the Spanish Netherlands in the War of Devolution. Facing the prospect of years of war with Portugal and the loss of its provinces to France, Spain now quickly came to terms. [11]
In 1580, the crowns of Spain and Portugal were united under Philip II of Spain, forming the Iberian Union. [10] This union allowed Spain to claim rights over Portuguese territories and interests, including those in the Moluccas.
The Dutch colonial empire emerged, which began with Dutch attacks on Portugal's overseas territories. Facing a stalemate , the two sides agreed to a Twelve Years' Truce in 1609; when it expired in 1621, fighting resumed as part of the broader Thirty Years' War .
In 1777, Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of San Ildefonso, which mainly resolved a number of border disputes between their South American colonies. During the Age of Enlightenment , Portugal was considered one of Europe's unenlightened backwaters; it was a country of three million with 200,000 people in 538 monasteries in 1750.