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As a pencil of light goes through a flat plane of glass, its half-angle changes to θ 2. Due to Snell's law, the numerical aperture remains the same: NA = n 1 sin θ 1 = n 2 sin θ 2. In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a dimensionless number that characterizes the range of angles over which the system can accept or ...
If the line bundle is trivial with flat reference connection d we can write ∇ = d + A and F = dA with A the 1-form composed of the electric potential and the magnetic vector potential. In quantum mechanics, the connection itself is used to define the dynamics of the system. This formulation allows a natural description of the Aharonov–Bohm ...
Graphical interpretation of the parallel operator with =.. The parallel operator ‖ (pronounced "parallel", [1] following the parallel lines notation from geometry; [2] [3] also known as reduced sum, parallel sum or parallel addition) is a binary operation which is used as a shorthand in electrical engineering, [4] [5] [6] [nb 1] but is also used in kinetics, fluid mechanics and financial ...
Lorentz force on a charged particle (of charge q) in motion (velocity v), used as the definition of the E field and B field.. Here subscripts e and m are used to differ between electric and magnetic charges.
Any line not parallel to direction is mapped onto a line; any line parallel to is mapped onto a point. Parallel lines are mapped on parallel lines, or on a pair of points (if they are parallel to ). The ratio of the length of two line segments on a line stays unchanged. As a special case, midpoints are mapped on midpoints. The length of a line ...
An angle equal to 0° or not turned is called a zero angle. [10] An angle smaller than a right angle (less than 90°) is called an acute angle [11] ("acute" meaning "sharp"). An angle equal to 1 / 4 turn (90° or π / 2 radians) is called a right angle. Two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or ...
It is an affine space, which includes in particular the concept of parallel lines. It has also metrical properties induced by a distance, which allows to define circles, and angle measurement. A Euclidean plane with a chosen Cartesian coordinate system is called a Cartesian plane.
The physics convention. Spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ) as commonly used: (ISO 80000-2:2019): radial distance r (slant distance to origin), polar angle θ (angle with respect to positive polar axis), and azimuthal angle φ (angle of rotation from the initial meridian plane). This is the convention followed in this article.