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There is a paucity of reliable guidance on estimating sample sizes before starting the research, with a range of suggestions given. [ 16 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ] [ 21 ] In an effort to introduce some structure to the sample size determination process in qualitative research, a tool analogous to quantitative power calculations has been proposed.
Echo sounding or depth sounding is the use of sonar for ranging, normally to determine the depth of water . It involves transmitting acoustic waves into water and recording the time interval between emission and return of a pulse; the resulting time of flight , along with knowledge of the speed of sound in water, allows determining the distance ...
This keeps the returning echo in the same frequency range as the normal echolocation call. This dynamic frequency modulation is called the Doppler shift compensation (DSC), and was discovered by Hans Schnitzler in 1968. [1] CF bats employ the DSC mechanism to maintain the echo frequency within a narrow frequency range. [2]
Sonar image of the wreck of USS O-9.. The target strength or acoustic size is a measure of the area of a sonar target. This is usually quantified as a number of decibels.For fish such as salmon, the target size varies with the length of the fish and a 5 cm fish could have a target strength of about -50 dB.
Pulse compression is a signal processing technique commonly used by radar, sonar and echography to either increase the range resolution when pulse length is constrained or increase the signal to noise ratio when the peak power and the bandwidth (or equivalently range resolution) of the transmitted signal are constrained.
Bat echolocation calls range in frequency from 14,000 to well over 100,000 Hz, mostly beyond the range of the human ear (typical human hearing range is considered to be from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz). Bats may estimate the elevation of targets by interpreting the interference patterns caused by the echoes reflecting from the tragus , a flap of skin ...
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Audio engineers use dynamic range to describe the ratio of the amplitude of the loudest possible undistorted signal to the noise floor, say of a microphone or loudspeaker. [18] Dynamic range is therefore the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for the case where the signal is the loudest possible for the system. For example, if the ceiling of a device ...