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Although joints can occur singly, they most frequently appear as joint sets and systems. A joint set is a family of parallel, evenly spaced joints that can be identified through mapping and analysis of their orientations, spacing, and physical properties. A joint system consists of two or more intersecting joint sets. [1] [2] [3]
The surface geology of Germany has evolved to its current configuration due to regional differences in the action and appearance of external and internal forces during the last c. 20 million years. Germany can be divided into three physiographic regions: the Central European Depression, the Central European Blocks and the Alps.
Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock geometries to uncover information about the history of deformation ( strain ) in the rocks, and ultimately, to understand the stress ...
A discontinuity may exist as a single feature (e.g. fault, isolated joint or fracture) and in some circumstances, a discontinuity is treated as a single discontinuity although it belongs to a discontinuity set, in particular if the spacing is very wide compared to the size of the engineering application or to the size of the geotechnical unit.
Columnar jointing in Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland Columnar jointing in the Alcantara Gorge, Sicily. Columnar jointing is a geological structure where sets of intersecting closely spaced fractures, referred to as joints, result in the formation of a regular array of polygonal prisms (basalt prisms), or columns.
where is the stress intensity factor for Mode I, II, or III cracking and is a dimensionless quantity that varies with applied load and sample geometry. As the stress field gets close to the crack tip, i.e. r → 0 {\displaystyle r\rightarrow 0} , f i j {\displaystyle f_{ij}} becomes a fixed function of θ {\displaystyle \theta } .
The sample selection procedure is performed to optimize granularity, sample support, and cost. Samples are usually core samples composited over the height of the mining bench. [ 3 ] For hardness parameters, the variogram often increases rapidly near the origin and can reach the sill at distances significantly smaller than the typical drill hole ...
4) By using programs, such as Coltop 3D, the structural geometry of the joint/slope planes can be calculated automatically. [ 8 ] 5) The rock planes are determined by color-coding or statistical method for evaluating whether the points are grouped to form a single or different planes.