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While Western philosophical traditions, as exemplified by Descartes, equate mind with the conscious self and theorize on consciousness on the basis of mind/body dualism, some Eastern philosophies provide an alternate viewpoint, intimately related to substance dualism, by drawing a metaphysical line between consciousness and matter — where matter includes both body and mind.
Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas; it espouses dualism by theorising the existence of two separate realities. [128] The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman. [128] Vishnu is the Paramatman, in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions. [132]
While some Upanishads have been deemed 'monistic', others, including the Katha Upanishad, are dualistic. [92] The Maitri is one of the Upanishads that inclines more toward dualism, thus grounding classical Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, in contrast to the non-dualistic Upanishads at the foundation of its Vedanta school. [93]
In Shaivism alone, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts, and sixty-four monism Agama texts. [31] The Bhairava Shastras are monistic, while Shiva Shastras are dualistic. [32] [33] A similar breadth of diverse views is present in Vaishnava Agamas as well.
[note 16] In contrast, states Milne, it is misleading to call Advaita Vedānta "monistic," since this confuses the "negation of difference" with "conflation into one." [ 66 ] Advaita is a negative term (a-dvaita), states Milne, which denotes the "negation of a difference," between subject and object, or between perceiver and perceived.
Monism attributes oneness or singleness (Greek: μόνος) to a concept, such as to existence.Various kinds of monism can be distinguished: Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., in Neoplatonism everything is derived from The One. [1]
Samkhya or Sankhya (/ ˈ s ɑː ŋ k j ə /; Sanskrit: सांख्य, romanized: sāṃkhya) is a dualistic orthodox school of Hindu philosophy. [1] [2] [3] It views reality as composed of two independent principles, Puruṣa ('consciousness' or spirit) and Prakṛti (nature or matter, including the human mind and emotions).
However, scholars also note that other Abhangas attributed to Tukaram criticize monism, and favor dualistic Vedanta philosophy of the Indian philosophers Madhvacharya and Ramanuja. [20] In Abhanga 1471, according to Bhandarkar's translation, Tukaram says, "When monism is expounded without faith and love, the expounder as well as the hearer are ...