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Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR) occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from antimicrobials, which are drugs used to treat infections. [2] This resistance affects all classes of microbes, including bacteria (antibiotic resistance), viruses (antiviral resistance), protozoa (antiprotozoal resistance), and fungi (antifungal ...
Cross-resistance is when something develops resistance to several substances that have a similar mechanism of action. For example, if a certain type of bacteria develops resistance to one antibiotic, that bacteria will also have resistance to several other antibiotics that target the same protein or use the same route to get into the bacterium.
Horizontal gene transfer is the primary mechanism for the spread of antibiotic resistance in bacteria, [8] [5] [9] [10] and plays an important role in the evolution of bacteria that can degrade novel compounds such as human-created pesticides [11] and in the evolution, maintenance, and transmission of virulence. [12]
The evolution of bacteria on a "Mega-Plate" petri dish A list of antibiotic resistant bacteria is provided below. These bacteria have shown antibiotic resistance (or antimicrobial resistance). Gram positive Clostridioides difficile Clostridioides difficile is a nosocomial pathogen that causes diarrheal disease worldwide. Diarrhea caused by C. difficile can be life-threatening. Infections are ...
The resistome was first used to describe the resistance capabilities of bacteria preventing the effectiveness of antibiotics . [4] [5] Although antibiotics and their accompanying antibiotic resistant genes come from natural habitats, before next-generation sequencing, most studies of antibiotic resistance had been confined to the laboratory. [6]
Antibiotic resistant bacteria are able to transfer copies of DNA that code for a mechanism of resistance to other bacteria even distantly related to them, which then are also able to pass on the resistance genes, resulting in generations of antibiotics resistant bacteria. [11] This initial transfer of DNA is called horizontal gene transfer. [12]
Bacteria are capable of sharing these resistance factors in a process called horizontal gene transfer where resistant bacteria share genetic information that encodes resistance to the naive population. [6] Antibiotic inactivation: bacteria create proteins that can prevent damage caused by antibiotics, they can do this in two ways.
Escherichia coli bacteria on the right are sensitive to two beta-lactam antibiotics, and do not grow in the semi-circular regions surrounding the antibiotics. E. coli bacteria on the left are resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics, and grow next to one antibiotic (bottom) and are less inhibited by another antibiotic (top).