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In plant immunology, the hypersensitive response (HR) is a mechanism used by plants to prevent the spread of infection by microbial pathogens.HR is characterized by the rapid death of cells in the local region surrounding an infection and it serves to restrict the growth and spread of pathogens to other parts of the plant.
Schematic of the HPA axis (CRH, corticotropin-releasing hormone; ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone) Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis or HTPA axis) is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three components: the hypothalamus (a part of the brain located below the thalamus), the pituitary gland (a ...
Active site of T. thermophilus hpaB, showing hydrogen bonding of hpaB catalytic residues to 4-hydroxyphenylacetate and to the peroxide bound to FADH 2. (Note: this structure was generated using oxidized FAD in place of FADH 2; the magenta sphere representing oxygen here is actually a water molecule believed to occupy the space oxygen does when the flavin hydroxyperoxide is present.
Activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis is one of the main mechanisms by which the immune system interacts with stress. [29] In animal studies, stressors such as social disruption and restraint stress active HPA axis in mice [ 29 ] In both human and animal models, studies have shown that varying times of stress can ...
The SAM and HPA axes are regulated by several brain regions, including the limbic system, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hypothalamus, and stria terminalis. [3] Through these mechanisms, stress can alter memory functions, reward, immune function, metabolism, and susceptibility to diseases. [3] [4]
Two-component systems accomplish signal transduction through the phosphorylation of a response regulator (RR) by a histidine kinase (HK). Histidine kinases are typically homodimeric transmembrane proteins containing a histidine phosphotransfer domain and an ATP binding domain, though there are reported examples of histidine kinases in the atypical HWE and HisKA2 families that are not ...
Many egg-yolk and chorionic proteins are synthesized heterologously in the liver, which are necessary for ovocyte growth and development. Examples of such necessary liver proteins are vitellogenin and choriogenin. The HPA, HPG, and HPT axes are three pathways in which the hypothalamus and pituitary direct neuroendocrine function.
The epigenetics of plant growth and development refers to the heritable changes in gene expression that occur without alterations to the DNA sequence, influencing processes in plants such as seed germination, flowering, and stress responses through mechanisms like DNA methylation, histone modification, and chromatin remodeling.