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The integers arranged on a number line. An integer is the number zero , a positive natural number (1, 2, 3, . . .), or the negation of a positive natural number (−1, −2, −3, . . .). [1] The negations or additive inverses of the positive natural numbers are referred to as negative integers. [2]
In 1889, Giuseppe Peano used N for the positive integers and started at 1, [24] but he later changed to using N 0 and N 1. [25] Historically, most definitions have excluded 0, [ 22 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ] but many mathematicians such as George A. Wentworth , Bertrand Russell , Nicolas Bourbaki , Paul Halmos , Stephen Cole Kleene , and John Horton ...
Number theory is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers and arithmetic functions.German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) said, "Mathematics is the queen of the sciences—and number theory is the queen of mathematics."
When the set of negative numbers is combined with the set of natural numbers (including 0), the result is defined as the set of integers, Z also written . Here the letter Z comes from German Zahl 'number'. The set of integers forms a ring with the operations addition and multiplication. [35]
Frobenius coin problem with 2-pence and 5-pence coins visualised as graphs: Sloping lines denote graphs of 2x+5y=n where n is the total in pence, and x and y are the non-negative number of 2p and 5p coins, respectively.
In 1955 Paul Erdős showed that the density of amicable numbers, relative to the positive integers, was 0. [ 11 ] In 1968 Martin Gardner noted that most even amicable pairs sumsdivisible by 9, [ 12 ] and that a rule for characterizing the exceptions (sequence A291550 in the OEIS ) was obtained.