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In statistics, a proxy or proxy variable is a variable that is not in itself directly relevant, but that serves in place of an unobservable or immeasurable variable. [1] In order for a variable to be a good proxy, it must have a close correlation, not necessarily linear, with the variable of interest. This correlation might be either positive ...
Reconstructions of global temperature of the past 2000 years, using composite of different proxy methods. In the study of past climates ("paleoclimatology"), climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements [1] and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth's history.
Unemployment is an example of a countercyclical variable. [4] Similarly, business failures and stock market prices tend to be countercyclical. In finance, an asset that tends to do well while the economy as a whole is doing poorly is referred to as countercyclical, and could be for example a business or a financial instrument whose value is ...
A research question is "a question that a research project sets out to answer". [1] Choosing a research question is an essential element of both quantitative and qualitative research . Investigation will require data collection and analysis, and the methodology for this will vary widely.
The most famous examples of this development are the MEW index developed by William Nordhaus and James Tobin in their Measure of Economic Welfare (MEW) in 1972, the Japanese Net National Welfare (NNW) indicator in 1973, the Economic Aspects of Welfare index (EAW) index of Zolatas in 1981, the ISEW indicator of Daly and Cobb in 1989 and the UN's ...
They raised questions later adopted by critics of Mann's work, including the point that bristlecone pines from the Western U.S. could have been affected by pollution such as rising CO 2 levels as well as temperature. The temperature curve was supported by other studies, but most of these shared the limited well dated proxy evidence then ...
Indicator bacteria themselves may not be pathogenic but their presence in waste may indicate the presence of other pathogens. [1] Similar to how there are various types of indicator organisms, there are also various types of indicator bacteria. The most common indicators are total coliforms, fecal coliforms, E. coli, and enterococci. [2]
Examples of latent variables from the field of economics include quality of life, business confidence, morale, happiness and conservatism: these are all variables which cannot be measured directly. But linking these latent variables to other, observable variables, the values of the latent variables can be inferred from measurements of the ...