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  2. X-ray spectroscopy - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_spectroscopy

    The idea of doing this analysis by physics instrumentation was considered suspect. To overcome this bias, the salesman would ask a prospective customer for a task the customer was doing by “wet methods”. The task would be given to the applications lab and they would demonstrate how accurately and quickly it could be done using the X-ray units.

  3. Directional statistics - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directional_statistics

    The von Mises distribution is a circular distribution which, like any other circular distribution, may be thought of as a wrapping of a certain linear probability distribution around the circle. The underlying linear probability distribution for the von Mises distribution is mathematically intractable; however, for statistical purposes, there ...

  4. Causal loop diagram - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_loop_diagram

    The diagram consists of a set of words and arrows. Causal loop diagrams are accompanied by a narrative which describes the causally closed situation the CLD describes. Closed loops, or causal feedback loops, in the diagram are very important features of CLDs because they may help identify non-obvious vicious circles and virtuous circles.

  5. Hall circles - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_circles

    Hall circles (also known as M-circles and N-circles) are a graphical tool in control theory used to obtain values of a closed-loop transfer function from the Nyquist plot (or the Nichols plot) of the associated open-loop transfer function. Hall circles have been introduced in control theory by Albert C. Hall in his thesis.

  6. Chaos theory - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theory

    Some dynamical systems, like the one-dimensional logistic map defined by x → 4 x (1 – x), are chaotic everywhere, but in many cases chaotic behavior is found only in a subset of phase space. The cases of most interest arise when the chaotic behavior takes place on an attractor , since then a large set of initial conditions leads to orbits ...

  7. Torus - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus

    Poloidal direction (red arrow) and toroidal direction (blue arrow) A torus of revolution in 3-space can be parametrized as: [2] (,) = (+ ⁡) ⁡ (,) = (+ ⁡) ⁡ (,) = ⁡ using angular coordinates θ, φ ∈ [0, 2π), representing rotation around the tube and rotation around the torus's axis of revolution, respectively, where the major radius R is the distance from the center of the tube to ...

  8. Scientific method - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method

    The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, not the history of science itself. The development of rules for scientific reasoning has not been straightforward; scientific method has been the subject of intense and recurring debate throughout the history of science, and eminent natural philosophers and scientists have argued for the primacy of ...

  9. List of circle topics - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_circle_topics

    This list of circle topics includes things related to the geometric shape, either abstractly, as in idealizations studied by geometers, or concretely in physical space. It does not include metaphors like "inner circle" or "circular reasoning" in which the word does not refer literally to the geometric shape.