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Schematic of the HPA axis (CRH, corticotropin-releasing hormone; ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone) Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis or HTPA axis) is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three components: the hypothalamus (a part of the brain located below the thalamus), the pituitary gland (a ...
Definitions differ, and may be along the lines of continual activation of the stress response, [43] stress that causes an allostatic shift in bodily functions, [5] or just as "prolonged stress". [44] For example, results of one study demonstrated that individuals who reported relationship conflict lasting one month or longer have a greater risk ...
Acute stress can also affect a person's neural correlates which interfere with the memory formation. During a stressful time, a person's attention and emotional state may be affected, which could hinder the ability to focus while processing an image. Stress can also enhance the neural state of memory formation. [clarification needed] [29]
Thus, reproductive function can be altered through psychological or physiological stress through the HPA axis due to the modulatory effects that this pathway has on the HPO axis: its activation, which can occur in states of low energy availability (LEA) as an adaptive response to physical, nutritional, or extreme emotional stress, causes the ...
During chronic stress conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), blood serum levels of CRH are decreased in combat veterans with PTSD compared to healthy individuals. [9] It is believed that chronic stress enhances the negative feedback inhibition of the HPA axis, resulting in lower CRH levels and HPA function. [10] [11] [12]
The "stress hormone", cortisol, is a glucocorticoid that binds to glucocorticoid receptors. [81] [82] [83] Psychological stress induces the release of cortisol from the adrenal gland by activating the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis).
In people with MDD this often shows increased activation in depressed people, but the mechanism behind this is not yet known. [120] Increased basal cortisol levels and abnormal response to dexamethasone challenges have been observed in people with MDD. [121] Early life stress has been hypothesized as a potential cause of HPA dysfunction.
The activation of the HPG axis in both males and females during puberty also causes individuals to acquire secondary sex characteristics. This process, known as gonadarche, is preceded by adrenarche, the maturation of the adrenal glands, which contributes to the production of androgens responsible for some pubertal changes.