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Euler's identity therefore states that the limit, as n approaches infinity, of (+ /) is equal to −1. This limit is illustrated in the animation to the right. Euler's formula for a general angle. Euler's identity is a special case of Euler's formula, which states that for any real number x,
Euler's formula is ubiquitous in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and engineering. The physicist Richard Feynman called the equation "our jewel" and "the most remarkable formula in mathematics". [2] When x = π, Euler's formula may be rewritten as e iπ + 1 = 0 or e iπ = −1, which is known as Euler's identity.
The Euler characteristic χ was classically defined for the surfaces of polyhedra, according to the formula χ = V − E + F {\displaystyle \chi =V-E+F} where V , E , and F are respectively the numbers of v ertices (corners), e dges and f aces in the given polyhedron.
The Euler function may be expressed as a q-Pochhammer symbol: = (;). The logarithm of the Euler function is the sum of the logarithms in the product expression, each of which may be expanded about q = 0, yielding
Comment: The proof of Euler's four-square identity is by simple algebraic evaluation. Quaternions derive from the four-square identity, which can be written as the product of two inner products of 4-dimensional vectors, yielding again an inner product of 4-dimensional vectors: (a·a)(b·b) = (a×b)·(a×b).
Both sides of the Euler product formula converge for Re(s) > 1. The proof of Euler's identity uses only the formula for the geometric series and the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. Since the harmonic series, obtained when s = 1, diverges, Euler's formula (which becomes Π p p / p − 1 ) implies that there are infinitely many primes. [5]
Using Euler's formula, any trigonometric function may be written in terms of complex exponential functions, namely and and then integrated. This technique is often simpler and faster than using trigonometric identities or integration by parts , and is sufficiently powerful to integrate any rational expression involving trigonometric functions.
Roger Cotes FRS (10 July 1682 – 5 June 1716) was an English mathematician, known for working closely with Isaac Newton by proofreading the second edition of his famous book, the Principia, before publication.