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Avestan druj, like its Vedic Sanskrit cousin druh, appears to derive from the PIE root * dhreugh, also continued in Persian دروغ / d[o]rūġ "lie", Welsh drwg "evil", and German Trug "fraud, deception". Old Norse draugr and Middle Irish airddrach mean "spectre, spook". The Sanskrit cognate druh means "affliction, afflicting demon". [10]
Avestan (/ ə ˈ v ɛ s t ən / ə-VESS-tən) [1] is the liturgical language of Zoroastrianism belonging to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. [2] It was originally spoken during the Old Iranian period (c. 1500 – 400 BCE) [3] [f 1] by the Iranians living in the eastern portion of Greater Iran.
Kshatra Vairya (Avestan: 𐬑𐬱𐬀𐬚𐬭𐬀 𐬬𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌𐬌𐬀, romanized: xšaθra va i riia; also Šahrewar Middle Persian: 𐭱𐭲𐭥𐭩𐭥𐭥, [3] and Xšaθra 𐬑𐬱𐬀𐬚𐬭𐬀, a cognate of Sanskrit kṣatrá in the Avestan language, from Proto-Indo-Iranian kšatrám) is one of the great seven "bounteous immortals" of Ahura Mazda in the Zoroastrian religion.
For Sanskrit, Avestan, Old Persian, Parthian, the third-person singular present indicative is given. Where useful, Sanskrit root forms are provided using the symbol √. For Tocharian, the stem is given. For Hittite, either the third-person singular present indicative or the stem is given.
Its Middle Persian equivalent, as attested in the Pahlavi script texts of Zoroastrian tradition, is 𐭥𐭤𐭥𐭬𐭭 Wahman, which is a borrowing of the Avestan language expression and has the same meaning, and which continues in New Persian as بهمن Bahman and variants.
The Old Avestan material consists of the Gathas, the Yasna Haptanghaiti, and a number of manthras, namely the Ashem Vohu, the Ahuna Vairya and the Airyaman ishya.These Old Avestan texts are assumed to have been composed close together and must have crystallized early on, possibly due to the associating with Zarathustra himself. [12]
In the late 11th or early 12th century, Indian Zoroastrians (the Parsis) began translating Avestan or Middle Persian texts into Sanskrit and Gujarati. Some Middle Persian texts were also transcribed into the Avestan alphabet. The latter process, being a form of interpretation, was known as 'pa-zand'.
The neuter noun verethragna is related to Avestan verethra, 'obstacle' and verethragnan, 'victorious'. [5] Representing this concept is the divinity Verethragna, who is the hypostasis of "victory", and "as a giver of victory Verethragna plainly enjoyed the greatest popularity of old."