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When atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2), or carbonate ions (HCO − 3, CO 2− 3 dissolved in water) diffuse into concrete from its external surface, they react with calcium hydroxide (portlandite, Ca(OH) 2) and the pH of the concrete pore water progressively decreases from 13.5 – 12.5 to 8.5 (pH of water in equilibrium with calcite).
The results of the first two defects are visible enough in the house as it now exists, in the damp and green stains which are everywhere to be seen from the level of the ground to some two or three feet up the walls." Helps To Health, Sir Henry Burdett (1885), p. 138.
One being Green concrete that is produced by recycled waste materials from various industries , another being Ashcrete, a material made from a mix of lime and water that acts similar to cement. Black furnace slag is also a strong alternative made from molten iron slag into water, along with Micro Silica, Papercrete, composite cement, and post ...
The water diffusion time is thus proportional to the square of its transport distance. As a consequence, the water saturation degree inside thick concrete structures often remains higher than 80%, a level sufficient to provide enough water to the system and to maintain the alkali-silica reaction on going.
Providence’s tap water had had dangerous lead levels for years. Around the country, utilities have been leaving lead pipe in the ground even when it is easiest to remove during water main work.
The initiation time is related to the rate at which carbonation propagates in the concrete cover thickness.Once that carbonation reaches the steel surface, altering the local pH value of the environment, the protective thin film of oxides on the steel surface becomes instable, and corrosion initiates involving an extended portion of the steel surface.
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Concrete sealers are applied to concrete to protect it from surface damage, corrosion, and staining. They either block the pores in the concrete to reduce absorption of water and salts or form an impermeable layer which prevents such materials from passing.