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The substitutions of Euler can be generalized by allowing the use of imaginary numbers. For example, in the integral +, the substitution + = + can be used. Extensions to the complex numbers allows us to use every type of Euler substitution regardless of the coefficients on the quadratic.
In calculus, integration by substitution, also known as u-substitution, reverse chain rule or change of variables, [1] is a method for evaluating integrals and antiderivatives. It is the counterpart to the chain rule for differentiation , and can loosely be thought of as using the chain rule "backwards."
The Lebesgue integral, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is one way to make this concept rigorous and to extend it to more general functions. The Lebesgue integral is more general than the Riemann integral, which it largely replaced in mathematical analysis since the first half of the 20th century. It can accommodate functions ...
Lebesgue integration; Contour integration; Integral of inverse functions; Integration by; Parts; Discs; Cylindrical shells; Substitution (trigonometric, tangent half-angle, Euler) Euler's formula; Partial fractions (Heaviside's method) Changing order; Reduction formulae; Differentiating under the integral sign; Risch algorithm
The theorem also holds if balls are replaced, in the definition of the derivative, by families of sets with diameter tending to zero satisfying the Lebesgue's regularity condition, defined above as family of sets with bounded eccentricity. This follows since the same substitution can be made in the statement of the Vitali covering lemma.
In science and especially in mathematical studies, a variational principle is one that enables a problem to be solved using calculus of variations, which concerns finding functions that optimize the values of quantities that depend on those functions.
Dominated convergence theorem (Lebesgue integration) Egorov's theorem (measure theory) Fatou–Lebesgue theorem (real analysis) Fubini's theorem (integration) Hahn decomposition theorem (measure theory) Hahn–Kolmogorov theorem (measure theory) Ham sandwich theorem ; Hobby–Rice theorem (mathematical analysis) KÅmura's theorem (measure theory)
The proof of the general Leibniz rule [2]: 68–69 proceeds by induction. Let and be -times differentiable functions.The base case when = claims that: ′ = ′ + ′, which is the usual product rule and is known to be true.