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Initially, paper was ruled by hand, sometimes using templates. [1] Scribes could rule their paper using a "hard point," a sharp implement which left embossed lines on the paper without any ink or color, [2] or could use "metal point," an implement which left colored marks on the paper, much like a graphite pencil, though various other metals were used.
The French economy was in continual crisis during the Directory. At the beginning, the treasury was empty; the paper money, the Assignat, had fallen to a fraction of its value, and prices soared. The Directory stopped printing assignats and restored the value of the money, but this caused a new crisis; prices and wages fell, and economic ...
The mill thus produced paper for incunables (the name given to the first printed books), such as the Nuremberg Chronicle by Dürer. Also printed on Arches paper was the Description de l'Égypte commissioned by Napoleon I upon his return from his Egyptian campaign, [ 1 ] and the complete works of Voltaire , a printing project that consumed some ...
Recto is the "right" or "front" side and verso is the "left" or "back" side when text is written or printed on a leaf of paper (folium) in a bound item such as a codex, book, broadsheet, or pamphlet. In double-sided printing , each leaf has two pages – front and back.
Card money worth one guilder, from Dutch Guiana (1801). Card money is a type of fiat money printed on plain cardboard or playing cards, which was used at times as currency in several colonies and countries (including Dutch Guiana, New France, and France) from the 17th century to the early 19th century.
Print media played a significant role in the formation of popular public opinion towards the monarchy and Old Regime. Under the Old Regime, France had a small number of heavily censored newspapers which needed royal licenses to operate; papers without licenses had to operate underground. [1]
The French monarchy, along with the Kingdom of France itself, was abolished on 21 September 1792, when the First French Republic was proclaimed. The Revolution did away with the concept of ownership of political entities by individuals. As such the French Republic was a unitary state rather than a mosaic of vassals or "semi-states".
The indirect election took place from 2 to 10 September 1792 after the election of the electoral colleges by primary assemblies on 26 August. [2] Despite the introduction of universal male suffrage, the turn-out was low, [3] [note 1] though the election saw an increase in comparison to the 1791 elections—in 1792 11.9% of a greatly increased electorate votes, compared to 10.2% of a much ...