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Carnosine (beta-alanyl-L-histidine) is a dipeptide molecule, made up of the amino acids beta-alanine and histidine. It is highly concentrated in muscle and brain tissues. [citation needed] Carnosine was discovered by Russian chemist Vladimir Gulevich. [1] Carnosine is naturally produced by the body in the liver [2] from beta-alanine and histidine.
Carnosine synthase (EC 6.3.2.11) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction ATP + L-histidine + beta-alanine ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } ADP + phosphate + carnosine The 3 substrates of this enzyme are ATP , L-histidine , and beta-alanine , whereas its 3 products are ADP (previously thought to form AMP [ 1 ] ), diphosphate ...
Serum carnosinase: [14] This is the carnosinase found in the blood plasma. Deficiency of this form of carnosinase, along with carnosinuria ("carnosine in the urine"), is the usual metabolic indicator of systemic carnosinase deficiency. [3] [8] [17] Serum carnosinase is a glycoprotein, and splits free carnosine and anserine in the blood. [11]
Carnosine and metabolic derivatives of carnosine, including NAC, are found in a variety of tissues but particularly muscle tissue. [1] These compounds have varying degrees of activity as free radical scavengers. [1] It has been suggested that NAC is particularly active against lipid peroxidation in the different parts of the lens in the eye. [3]
Ketogenesis pathway. The three ketone bodies (acetoacetate, acetone, and beta-hydroxy-butyrate) are marked within orange boxes. Ketogenesis is the biochemical process through which organisms produce ketone bodies by breaking down fatty acids and ketogenic amino acids.
Because the level of circulatory glucose is largely determined by the intake of dietary carbohydrates, diet controls major aspects of metabolism via insulin. [18] In humans, insulin is made by beta cells in the pancreas, fat is stored in adipose tissue cells, and glycogen is both stored and released as needed by liver cells. Regardless of ...
There are many signals that control catabolism. Most of the known signals are hormones and the molecules involved in metabolism itself. Endocrinologists have traditionally classified many of the hormones as anabolic or catabolic, depending on which part of metabolism they stimulate.
Anserine is a derivative of carnosine, which has been methylated. [2] Both anserine and carnosine chelate copper. [3] Due to its methylation, anserine is more stable in serum and resistant to degradation than carnosine. [4] Anserine can be found in the skeletal muscle and brain of mammals and birds. [2]