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Ijtihad (/ ˌ ɪ dʒ t ə ˈ h ɑː d / IJ-tə-HAHD; [1] Arabic: اجتهاد ijtihād [ʔidʒ.tihaːd], lit. ' physical effort ' or ' mental effort ') [2] is an Islamic legal term referring to independent reasoning by an expert in Islamic law, [3] or the thorough exertion of a jurist's mental faculty in finding a solution to a legal question. [2]
As the language of Saadia Gaon's translation became archaic and remote from common speech, most Jewish communities of the Arab world evolved their own translations of the Torah into their local dialects of Judaeo-Arabic. A traditional translation of this kind is known as a sharħ (plural shurūħ), from the Arabic word for "explanation". These ...
The most widespread translation used by Indonesian speakers right now is the Terjemahan Baru, or "New Translation" (1974), published by LAI ("Lembaga Alkitab Indonesia," or Indonesian Bible Society). List of modern (1945 onward) translations: Alkitab Terjemahan Lama (1958): called the Old Translation after the New Translation (1974) came out.
The consensus against ijtihad and in favor of taqlid lasted until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when Ijtihad was resurrected. [12] In the 15th and 16th centuries C.E., according to Mehram Kamrava, Islam's "conservative default" and opposition to innovation and the institutions they depended on, started to became a serious handicap.
Istiḥsan (Arabic: اِسْتِحْسَان ) is an Arabic term for juristic discretion. In its literal sense it means "to consider something good". Muslim scholars may use it to express their preference for particular judgements in Islamic law over other possibilities.
The most widespread translation used by Indonesian right now is Terjemahan Baru (1985), or "New Translation" published by LAI ("Lembaga Alkitab Indonesia" or Indonesian Bible Society). Gottlob Brückner (1783–1857) translated the Bible into Javanese , the largest local language of Indonesia, in 1820 [ 5 ]
[12] [13] From the 18th century on, leading Muslim reformers began calling for abandonment of taqlid and renewed emphasis on ijtihad, which they saw as a return to the vitality of early Islamic jurisprudence.
[23] [24] Ibn al-Nadim, the 10th-century bibliophile biographer from Basra, reports that in fact Sibawayh's "Kitab" (Book) was a collaborative work of forty-two authors, but also that the principles and subjects in the "Kitab" were based on those of al-Farahidi. [25] He is quoted by Sibawayh 608 times, more than any other authority. [26]