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Differential calculus is the study of the definition, properties, and applications of the derivative of a function. The process of finding the derivative is called differentiation . Given a function and a point in the domain, the derivative at that point is a way of encoding the small-scale behavior of the function near that point.
For a real-valued function of a single real variable, the derivative of a function at a point generally determines the best linear approximation to the function at that point. Differential calculus and integral calculus are connected by the fundamental theorem of calculus. This states that differentiation is the reverse process to integration.
The partial derivative generalizes the notion of the derivative to higher dimensions. A partial derivative of a multivariable function is a derivative with respect to one variable with all other variables held constant. [1]: 26ff A partial derivative may be thought of as the directional derivative of the function along a coordinate axis.
The order of the differential equation is the highest order of derivative of the unknown function that appears in the differential equation. For example, an equation containing only first-order derivatives is a first-order differential equation, an equation containing the second-order derivative is a second-order differential equation, and so on.
Marston Morse applied calculus of variations in what is now called Morse theory. [6] Lev Pontryagin, Ralph Rockafellar and F. H. Clarke developed new mathematical tools for the calculus of variations in optimal control theory. [6] The dynamic programming of Richard Bellman is an alternative to the calculus of variations. [7] [8] [9] [c]
Dedekind then constructed the real numbers by Dedekind cuts, in which irrational numbers are formally defined, which serve to fill the "gaps" between rational numbers, thereby creating a complete set: the continuum of real numbers, which had already been developed by Simon Stevin in terms of decimal expansions.
In the real numbers one can iterate the differentiation process, that is, apply derivatives more than once, obtaining derivatives of second and higher order. Higher derivatives can also be defined for functions of several variables, studied in multivariable calculus .
In multivariable calculus, the directional derivative measures the rate at which a function changes in a particular direction at a given point. [citation needed]The directional derivative of a multivariable differentiable (scalar) function along a given vector v at a given point x intuitively represents the instantaneous rate of change of the function, moving through x with a direction ...