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Ions in the solar wind or magnetosphere can charge exchange with molecules in the upper atmosphere. A fast-moving ion can capture the electron from a slow atmospheric neutral, creating a fast neutral and a slow ion. The slow ion is trapped on the magnetic field lines, but the fast neutral can escape. [5]
Atmospheric entry (sometimes listed as V impact or V entry) is the movement of an object from outer space into and through the gases of an atmosphere of a planet, dwarf planet, or natural satellite. Atmospheric entry may be uncontrolled entry, as in the entry of astronomical objects, space debris, or bolides.
This energy heats the atmosphere, which then begins to expand. This expansion continues into the vacuum of space, accelerating as it goes until it escapes. In atmospheric science , hydrodynamic escape refers to a thermal atmospheric escape mechanism that can lead to the escape of heavier atoms of a planetary atmosphere through numerous ...
For example, as the Earth's rotational velocity is 465 m/s at the equator, a rocket launched tangentially from the Earth's equator to the east requires an initial velocity of about 10.735 km/s relative to the moving surface at the point of launch to escape whereas a rocket launched tangentially from the Earth's equator to the west requires an ...
Transport of gas molecules in the atmosphere occurs by two mechanisms: molecular and eddy diffusion. Molecular diffusion is the transport of molecules from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration due to thermal motion.
Cosmic rays are also responsible for the continuous production of a number of unstable isotopes, such as carbon-14, in the Earth's atmosphere through the reaction: n + 14 N → p + 14 C Cosmic rays kept the level of carbon-14 [ 85 ] in the atmosphere roughly constant (70 tons) for at least the past 100,000 years, [ citation needed ] until the ...
J1249+36 jumped out to citizen scientists combing through the data a few years ago because the star was moving at about 0.1% the speed of light, according to the study authors.
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft), although this altitude varies from about 9 km (5.6 mi; 30,000 ft) at the geographic poles to 17 km (11 mi; 56,000 ft) at the Equator, [17] with some variation due