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The magnetic north pole is constantly shifting relative to the axis of rotation of Earth. Magnetism is a vector and so magnetic field variation is studied by palaeodirectional measurements of magnetic declination and magnetic inclination and palaeointensity measurements. Earth's magnetic polarity reversals in last 5 million years.
With a local declination of 14°E, a true bearing (i.e. obtained from a map) of 54° is converted to a magnetic bearing (for use in the field) by subtracting declination: 54° – 14° = 40°. If the local declination was 14°W (−14°), it is again subtracted from the true bearing to obtain a magnetic bearing: 54°- (−14°) = 68°.
The resulting bearing indicated is the magnetic bearing to the target. Again, if one is using "true" or map bearings, and the compass does not have preset, pre-adjusted declination, one must additionally add or subtract magnetic declination to convert the magnetic bearing into a true bearing. The exact value of the magnetic declination is place ...
A visual fix can be made by using any sighting device with a bearing indicator. Two or more objects of known position are sighted, and the bearings recorded. Bearing lines are then plotted on a chart through the locations of the sighted items. The intersection of these lines is the current position of the vessel.
The geologic history of Earth's Moon has been divided into a time scale based on geomorphological markers, namely impact cratering, volcanism, and erosion. This process of dividing the Moon's history in this manner means that the time scale boundaries do not imply fundamental changes in geological processes, unlike Earth's geologic time scale.
Because the Earth's curved surface is not isometric to a plane, preservation of shapes inevitably requires a variable scale and, consequently, non-proportional presentation of areas. Similarly, an area-preserving projection can not be conformal, resulting in shapes and bearings distorted in most places of the map. Each projection preserves ...
Approximate extent of the Karoo Glaciation (in blue), over the Gondwana supercontinent during the Carboniferous and Permian periods. The late Paleozoic icehouse, also known as the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (LPIA) and formerly known as the Karoo ice age, was an ice age that began in the Late Devonian and ended in the Late Permian, [1] occurring from 360 to 255 million years ago (Mya), [2] [3] and ...
Biogeography [7] [8] is the science which deals with geographic patterns of species distribution and the processes that result in these patterns. Biogeography emerged as a field of study as a result of the work of Alfred Russel Wallace , although the field prior to the late twentieth century had largely been viewed as historic in its outlook ...