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Roman interaction with Nubia started in the late first century BC after Egypt became part of the Roman empire, following the defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the battle of Actium (31 BC). [2] The chronology falls under the Meroitic period (4th century BC to 4th century CE) of the kingdom of Kush.
Mounted Nubian elephant. Elephants were occasionally used in warfare during the Meroitic period as seen in the war against Rome around 20 BC. [50] There is some debate about the purpose of the Great Enclosure at Musawwarat es-Sufra, with earlier suggestions including an elephant-training camp. [69]
From the conquered Dacians, the Romans in Trajan's time borrowed the dragon ensign which became the standard of the cohort as the eagle was that of the legion. [3] Of Dacian , Sarmatian in origin, the draco was later generally introduced in the fourth century as a Roman standard.
Draco and other war trophies depicted in the Hadrianeum in Rome Detail from the Ludovisi battle sarcophagus showing a draco (top right, above the horse's head) The Greek military writer Arrian describes the draco in his passage on cavalry training exercises, calling it "Scythian": The Scythian banners are dracontes held aloft on standard-length ...
The Battle of Actium was a naval battle fought between Octavian's maritime fleet, led by Marcus Agrippa, and the combined fleets of both Mark Antony and Cleopatra.The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC in the Ionian Sea, near the former Roman colony of Actium, Greece, and was the climax of over a decade of rivalry between Octavian and Antony.
Petronius led a campaign into present-day central Sudan against the Kingdom of Kush at Meroë, whose queen Imanarenat had previously attacked Roman Egypt. Failing to acquire permanent gains, he razed the city of Napata to the ground and retreated to the north. Strabo describes a war with the Romans in the 1st century BC.
Romans referred to sub-Saharan Africa as Aethiopia (Ethiopia), which referred to the people's "burned" skin. They also had available memoirs of the ancient Carthage explorer, Hanno the Navigator, being referenced by the Roman Pliny the Elder (c. 23–79) [2] and the Greek Arrian of Nicomedia (c. 86–160). [3]
The adopted standard in the Roman cavalry was borne by a draconarius. Later, the draco became an imperial ensign. [43] The only copy left is a dragon-like gilded head of the late Roman standard found at the Niederbieber, Germany. [45] The draco was specific not only to Roman occupied Dacia but also to the Sarmatian and Parthian regions.