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Many experiments have shown that graphene (oxide) nanomaterials have toxic side effects in many biological applications, but more in-depth study of toxicity mechanisms is needed. [92] According to the USA FDA, graphene, graphene oxide, and reduced graphene oxide elicit toxic effects both in vitro and in vivo. [93]
However, when formed into a graphene oxide-based capillary membrane, both liquid water and water vapor flow through as quickly as if the membrane were not present. [223] In 2022, researchers evaluated the biological effects of low doses on graphene oxide on larvae and imago of Drosophila melanogaster. Results show that oral administration of ...
The health and safety hazards of nanomaterials include the potential toxicity of various types of nanomaterials, as well as fire and dust explosion hazards. Because nanotechnology is a recent development, the health and safety effects of exposures to nanomaterials, and what levels of exposure may be acceptable, are subjects of ongoing research.
A review of works on fullerene toxicity by Lalwani et al. found little evidence that C 60 is toxic. [1] The toxicity of these carbon nanoparticles varies with dose, duration, type (e.g., C 60, C 70, M@C 60, M@C 82), functional groups used to water-solubilize these nanoparticles (e.g., OH, COOH), and method of administration (e.g., intravenous, intraperitoneal).
Graphene oxide can be reversibly reduced and oxidized via electrical stimulus. Controlled reduction and oxidation in two-terminal devices containing multilayer graphene oxide films are shown to result in switching between partly reduced graphene oxide and graphene, a process that modifies electronic and optical properties.
Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) are graphene nanoparticles with a size less than 100 nm. Due to their exceptional properties such as low toxicity, stable photoluminescence , chemical stability and pronounced quantum confinement effect, GQDs are considered as a novel material for biological, opto-electronics, energy and environmental applications.
A strong research focus has been placed on triggering production of excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) using nanoparticles injected into bacterial cells. The presence of excessive ROS can stress the cell structure leading to damaged DNA/RNA, decreased membrane activity, disrupted metabolic activity, and harmful side reactions generating chemicals such as peroxides.
Graphene is the only form of carbon (or solid material) in which every atom is available for chemical reaction from two sides (due to the 2D structure). Atoms at the edges of a graphene sheet have special chemical reactivity. Graphene has the highest ratio of edge atoms of any allotrope. Defects within a sheet increase its chemical reactivity. [1]