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[151] [153] In addition to breast cancer risk, estrogen alone and estrogen plus progestogen therapy are associated with higher breast cancer mortality. [154] With 20 years of use, breast cancer incidence is about 1.5-fold higher with estrogen alone and about 2.5-fold higher with estrogen plus progestogen therapy relative to non-use. [151]
Progesterone (P4), sold under the brand name Prometrium among others, is a medication and naturally occurring steroid hormone. [20] It is a progestogen and is used in combination with estrogens mainly in hormone therapy for menopausal symptoms and low sex hormone levels in women.
MPA is a potent full agonist of the AR. Its activation of the AR may play an important and major role in its antigonadotropic effects and in its beneficial effects against breast cancer. [156] [173] [174] However, although MPA may produce androgenic side effects such as acne and hirsutism in some women,.
Progesterone was studied in the treatment of breast cancer in 1951 and 1952, but with relatively modest results. [158] [159] [160] Megestrol acetate was first studied in the treatment of breast cancer in 1967, and was one of the first progestins to be evaluated for the treatment of this disease. [6] [30] [161] A second study was conducted in 1974.
Staging breast cancer is the initial step to help physicians determine the most appropriate course of treatment. As of 2016, guidelines incorporated biologic factors, such as tumor grade, cellular proliferation rate, estrogen and progesterone receptor expression, human epidermal growth factor 2 (HER2) expression, and gene expression profiling into the staging system.
Less common (but serious) side effects of all post-menopausal estrogens include increased risk or severity of breast, ovarian or uterine cancer; stroke; heart attack; blood clots; dementia; gallbladder disease; high blood pressure, liver problems; high blood sugar, fluid retention, enlargement of benign tumors of the uterus; a spotty darkening ...
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