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A cave survey is a map of all or part of a cave system, which may be produced to meet differing standards of accuracy depending on the cave conditions and equipment available underground. Cave surveying and cartography , i.e. the creation of an accurate, detailed map, is one of the most common technical activities undertaken within a cave and ...
Therion is used in several large projects for the documentation of cave systems. [6] [7] [8] It is listed among 10 of the Best Free Linux Earth Science Software. [9] It was used in a number of scientific projects. [10] Not everyone finds the results satisfying: "Beginning in 2003, the Mulu Caves Project attempted to use Therion on several cave ...
The United States Code defines speleogens as "relief features on the walls, ceiling, and floor of any cave or lava tube which are part of the surrounding bedrock, including anastomoses, scallops, meander niches, petromorphs and rock pendants in solution caves and similar features unique to volcanic caves."
Cave environments fall into three general categories: Endogean; the parts of caves that are in communication with surface soils through cracks and rock seams, groundwater seepage, and root protrusion. Parahypogean; the threshold regions near cave mouths that extend to the last penetration of sunlight. Hypogean; or "true" cave environments.
Bedrock is dissolved by carbonic acid in rainwater, groundwater, or humic acids from decaying vegetation, that seeps through bedding planes, faults, joints, and the like.. Over time, the surface terrain breaks up into clints separated by grikes and punctuated by sinkholes into which streams may disappear, crevices expand as the walls are dissolved to become caves or cave sy
As the acidic water travels through the calcium carbonate bedrock from the surface to the cave ceiling, it dissolves the bedrock via the reaction: CaCO 3 + H 2 CO 3 → Ca 2+ + 2 HCO 3 −. When the solution reaches a cave, the lower pCO 2 in the cave drives the precipitation of CaCO 3 via the reaction: Ca 2+ + 2 HCO 3 − → CaCO 3 + H 2 O + CO 2
A cave pearl is a small, usually spherical, speleothem (cave formation) found in limestone caves. Cave pearls are formed by a concretion of calcium salts that form concentric layers around a nucleus. Exposure to moving water polishes the surface of cave pearls, making them glossy; if exposed to the air, cave pearls can degrade and appear rough.
Failure modes are classified as (1) shear fractures, (2) extensional fractures, and (3) hybrid fractures, [4] and can be described by the Mohr-Griffith-Coulomb fracture criterion. [5] The fracture criterion defines both the stress required for fracturing and the fracture orientation, as it is possible to construct on a Mohr diagram the shear ...