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The book is the center of a controversy in the history of AI, as some claim it greatly discouraged research on neural networks in the 1970s and contributed to the so-called "AI winter". [27] Minsky also founded several other AI models. His paper "A framework for representing knowledge" [28] created a new paradigm in knowledge representation.
Artificial intelligence (AI), in its broadest sense, is intelligence exhibited by machines, particularly computer systems.It is a field of research in computer science that develops and studies methods and software that enable machines to perceive their environment and use learning and intelligence to take actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined goals. [1]
This approach was continued by Russell and Whitehead in their influential Principia Mathematica, first published 1910–1913, [3] and with a revised second edition in 1927. [4] Russell and Whitehead thought they could derive all mathematical truth using axioms and inference rules of formal logic, in principle opening up the process to automation.
AI is not an emerging technology, but an "arrival technology" [55] AI appears to understand instructions and can generate human-like responses. [56] Behaving as a companion for many in a lonely and alienated world. [57] While also creating a "jagged technology frontier", [58] where AI is both very good and terribly bad at very similar tasks. [55]
A widely used type of composition is the nonlinear weighted sum, where () = (()), where (commonly referred to as the activation function [3]) is some predefined function, such as the hyperbolic tangent, sigmoid function, softmax function, or rectifier function. The important characteristic of the activation function is that it provides a smooth ...
The "Demystified" series is introductory in nature, for middle and high school students, favoring more in-depth coverage of introductory material at the expense of fewer topics. The "Easy Way" series is a middle ground: more rigorous and detailed than the "Demystified" books, but not as rigorous and terse as the Schaum's series.
Stephen Cole Kleene (/ ˈ k l eɪ n i / KLAY-nee; [a] January 5, 1909 – January 25, 1994) was an American mathematician.One of the students of Alonzo Church, Kleene, along with Rózsa Péter, Alan Turing, Emil Post, and others, is best known as a founder of the branch of mathematical logic known as recursion theory, which subsequently helped to provide the foundations of theoretical computer ...
The term finite mathematics is sometimes applied to parts of the field of discrete mathematics that deals with finite sets, particularly those areas relevant to business. Research in discrete mathematics increased in the latter half of the twentieth century partly due to the development of digital computers which operate in "discrete" steps and ...