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The non-zero vectors in Cl n (R) or R n are associated with points in the projective space so vectors that differ only by a scale factor, so their exterior product is zero, map to the same point. Non-zero simple bivectors in ⋀ 2 R n represent lines in RP n −1 , with bivectors differing only by a (positive or negative) scale factor ...
The fundamental difference is that GA provides a new product of vectors called the "geometric product". Elements of GA are graded multivectors: scalars are grade 0, usual vectors are grade 1, bivectors are grade 2 and the highest grade (3 in the 3D case) is traditionally called the pseudoscalar and designated .
Alternatively, -vectors are called pseudoscalars, -vectors are called pseudovectors, etc. Many of the elements of the algebra are not graded by this scheme since they are sums of elements of differing grade. Such elements are said to be of mixed grade. The grading of multivectors is independent of the basis chosen originally.
In the study of geometric algebras, a k-blade or a simple k-vector is a generalization of the concept of scalars and vectors to include simple bivectors, trivectors, etc. Specifically, a k-blade is a k-vector that can be expressed as the exterior product (informally wedge product) of 1-vectors, and is of grade k. In detail: [1] A 0-blade is a ...
Historically, vectors were introduced in geometry and physics (typically in mechanics) for quantities that have both a magnitude and a direction, such as displacements, forces and velocity. Such quantities are represented by geometric vectors in the same way as distances , masses and time are represented by real numbers .
The normal space to S at p, which is defined to consist of all normal vectors to S at p, is a one-dimensional linear subspace of ℝ 3 which is orthogonal to the tangent space T p S. As such, at each point p of S, there are two normal vectors of unit length (unit normal vectors).
Felix Klein saw screw theory as an application of elliptic geometry and his Erlangen Program. [11] He also worked out elliptic geometry, and a fresh view of Euclidean geometry, with the Cayley–Klein metric. The use of a symmetric matrix for a von Staudt conic and metric, applied to screws, has been described by Harvey Lipkin. [12]
Likewise, vectors whose components are contravariant push forward under smooth mappings, so the operation assigning the space of (contravariant) vectors to a smooth manifold is a covariant functor. Secondly, in the classical approach to differential geometry, it is not bases of the tangent bundle that are the most primitive object, but rather ...