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A simple cladogram showing the evolutionary relationships between four species: A, B, C, and D. Here, Species A is the outgroup, and Species B, C, and D form the ingroup. In cladistics or phylogenetics, an outgroup [1] is a more distantly related group of organisms that serves as a reference group when determining the evolutionary relationships of the ingroup, the set of organisms under study ...
A nonoptimal cladogram will be selected if the program settles on a local minimum rather than the desired global minimum. [16] To help solve this problem, many cladogram algorithms use a simulated annealing approach to increase the likelihood that the selected cladogram is the optimal one. [17]
Cladogram (a branching tree diagram) illustrating the relationships of organisms within groups of taxa known as clades. The vertical line stem at the base represents the last common ancestor . The blue and orange subgroups are clades, each defined by a common ancestor stem at the base of its respective subgroup branch .
The cladogram below is based on Schultz et al. (2016) which is the most genera inclusive rhynchosaur phylogenetic analysis to date, [10] with the position of Noteosuchus taken from other recent analyses (since it was removed in Schultz et al. (2016)), all in consensus with one another. [7] [11]
Example: Saying that Tyrannosaurus rex had an eyeball is a level 1 inference because both extant members of the groups encompassing Tyrannosaurus rex have eyeballs, and eyeball sockets (orbital excavations) in the skull, the homology of which is well established, and the fossils of Tyrannosaurus rex skulls have similar morphology.
For example, assuming Mammalia and Aves (birds) are defined in this manner, Amniotes could be defined as "the most recent common ancestor of Mammalia and Aves and all its descendants except Mammalia and Aves". This is an example of a paraphyletic group, a clade minus one or more subordinate clades.
If the lineages in the phylogenetic tree stand for species, a polytomy shows the simultaneous speciation of three or more species. [6] In particular situations, they may be common, for example when a species that has rapidly expanded its range or is highly panmictic undergoes peripatric speciation in different regions.
Images in cladograms: Images like silhouettes or lateral views of skulls or life restorations can be added to cladograms Note: when adding images, it is important to ensure that |middle is placed before the |thumb or equivalent, otherwise Firefox will render the images aligned to the bottom of the text and the taxon named will become uncentered.