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These two articles became the source of debate regarding Presidential Decree No. 52/1995, which was the primary legal basis for the reclamation of Jakarta Bay by the DKI Jakarta Government. The northern coast of Jakarta is planned to undergo land reclamation. The area to be reclaimed will cover 17 islands.
Land subsidence in Jakarta is mainly caused by the overuse of groundwater. [45] At the same time, the groundwater has lost its capacity to recharge due to the lack of watershed areas and overpopulation in the capital. Without any groundwater regulation in place, buildings in Jakarta are drawing water from the ground at an unprecedented rate.
The mean sea level rise globally was 3–10 mm per year, while the subsidence rate for Jakarta was around 75–100 mm per year, making the relative rise in sea level nearly 10 cm per year. [39] Continued carbon emissions at the 2019 rate, in combination with unlicensed groundwater extraction, is predicted to immerse 95% of Northern Jakarta by 2050.
Drivers, processes, and impacts of sinking cities [1]. Sinking cities are urban environments that are in danger of disappearing due to their rapidly changing landscapes.The largest contributors to these cities becoming unlivable are the combined effects of climate change (manifested through sea level rise, intensifying storms, and storm surge), land subsidence, and accelerated urbanization. [2]
Groundwater overexploitation occurs in heavily populated coastal areas of Java, including in Jakarta and Semarang. In Jakarta, it has caused seawater intrusion up to 10 km (6.2 mi) from the coast and land subsidence at a rate of 2–34 cm/year in east Jakarta. [7] In Semarang, land subsidence occurs at a rate of 9 cm/year. [8]
Subsidence frequently causes major problems in karst terrains, where dissolution of limestone by fluid flow in the subsurface creates voids (i.e., caves).If the roof of a void becomes too weak, it can collapse and the overlying rock and earth will fall into the space, causing subsidence at the surface.
Jakarta's main challenges include rapid urban growth, ecological breakdown, air pollution, gridlocked traffic, congestion, and flooding due to subsidence and water extraction (sea level rise is relative, not absolute). Part of North Jakarta is sinking up to 17 cm (6.7 inches) annually, meanwhile the southern part is relatively safe.
Bangkok, Ho Chi Minh City and Jakarta are amongst the 20 coastal cities which would have the world's highest annual flood losses in the year 2050. [143] Due to land subsidence , Jakarta is sinking so much (up to 28 cm (11 in) per year between 1982 and 2010 in some areas [ 149 ] ) that by 2019, the government had committed to relocate the ...