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The actual voltage, matching the car battery's voltage, will be approximately 12.5 volts when dormant (less in cold conditions), approximately 14.5 volts when the engine and the alternator/generator are operating (more when cold), and may briefly drop as low as 5–6 volts during engine start due to the high temporary battery current usage. [12]
A schematic representation of long distance electric power transmission. From left to right: G=generator, U=step-up transformer, V=voltage at beginning of transmission line, Pt=power entering transmission line, I=current in wires, R=total resistance in wires, Pw=power lost in transmission line, Pe=power reaching the end of the transmission line, D=step-down transformer, C=consumers.
The average modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.25 and 0.3. Sport utility vehicles (SUVs), with their typically boxy shapes, typically achieve a C d =0.35–0.45. The drag coefficient of a vehicle is affected by the shape of body of the vehicle.
The average of a symmetric alternating value is zero and it is therefore not useful to characterize it. Thus the easiest way to determine a quantitative measurement size is to use the average rectified value. The average rectified value is mainly used to characterize alternating voltage and current.
The AC current density J in a conductor decreases exponentially from its value at the surface J S according to the depth d from the surface, as follows: [4]: 362 = (+) / where is called the skin depth which is defined as the depth below the surface of the conductor at which the current density has fallen to 1/e (about 0.37) of J S.
New cars produced in the early 1990s contained the new refrigerant in their air conditioning systems. Owners of older cars with R-12 systems would either have to invest in an R-12 to R-134a conversion system, buy a new car, or find a qualified technician to recharge their older R-12 system. R-134a has been used in cars for almost 30 years.