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If one root r of a polynomial P(x) of degree n is known then polynomial long division can be used to factor P(x) into the form (x − r)Q(x) where Q(x) is a polynomial of degree n − 1. Q ( x ) is simply the quotient obtained from the division process; since r is known to be a root of P ( x ), it is known that the remainder must be zero.
Operations are then performed modulo m(x) where m(x) is an irreducible polynomial of degree n over GF(p), for instance using polynomial long division. Addition is the usual addition of polynomials, but the coefficients are reduced modulo p .
The long division may begin with a non-zero remainder. The remainder is generally computed using an -bit shift register holding the current remainder, while message bits are added and reduction modulo () is performed. Normal division initializes the shift register to zero, but it may instead be initialized to a non-zero value.
Long division is the standard algorithm used for pen-and-paper division of multi-digit numbers expressed in decimal notation. It shifts gradually from the left to the right end of the dividend, subtracting the largest possible multiple of the divisor (at the digit level) at each stage; the multiples then become the digits of the quotient, and the final difference is then the remainder.
Ruffini's rule can be used when one needs the quotient of a polynomial P by a binomial of the form . (When one needs only the remainder, the polynomial remainder theorem provides a simpler method.) A typical example, where one needs the quotient, is the factorization of a polynomial p ( x ) {\displaystyle p(x)} for which one knows a root r :
To maximise computation speed, an intermediate remainder can be calculated by first computing the CRC of the message modulo a sparse polynomial which is a multiple of the CRC polynomial. For CRC-32, the polynomial x 123 + x 111 + x 92 + x 84 + x 64 + x 46 + x 23 + 1 has the property that its terms (feedback taps) are at least 8 positions apart ...
Time-keeping on this clock uses arithmetic modulo 12. Adding 4 hours to 9 o'clock gives 1 o'clock, since 13 is congruent to 1 modulo 12. In mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "wrap around" when reaching a certain value, called the modulus.
Polynomial factoring algorithms use basic polynomial operations such as products, divisions, gcd, powers of one polynomial modulo another, etc. A multiplication of two polynomials of degree at most n can be done in O(n 2) operations in F q using "classical" arithmetic, or in O(nlog(n) log(log(n)) ) operations in F q using "fast" arithmetic.