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The temperature of the mantle increases rapidly in the thermal boundary layers at the top and bottom of the mantle, and increases gradually through the interior of the mantle. [22] Although the higher temperatures far exceed the melting points of the mantle rocks at the surface (about 1,500 K (1,200 °C; 2,200 °F) for representative peridotite ...
Most water in Earth's atmosphere and crust comes from saline seawater, while fresh water accounts for nearly 1% of the total. The vast bulk of the water on Earth is saline or salt water, with an average salinity of 35‰ (or 3.5%, roughly equivalent to 34 grams of salts in 1 kg of seawater), though this varies slightly according to the amount of runoff received from surrounding land.
The upper mantle of Earth is a very thick layer of rock inside the planet, which begins just beneath the crust (at about 10 km (6.2 mi) under the oceans and about 35 km (22 mi) under the continents) and ends at the top of the lower mantle the 670 km (420 mi). Temperatures range from approximately 500 K (227 °C; 440 °F) at the upper boundary ...
The Earth's mantle is a layer of silicate rock between the crust and the outer core.Its mass of 4.01 × 10 24 kg is 67% the mass of the Earth. [1] It has a thickness of 2,900 kilometres (1,800 mi) [1] making up about 84% of Earth's volume.
The fluidity of a material is proportional to temperature; thus, the solid mantle can still flow on long time scales, as a function of its temperature [2] and therefore as a function of the flow of Earth's internal heat.
According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 × 10 18 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5 × 10 15 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate.
The five components of the climate system all interact. They are the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere. [1]: 1451 Earth's climate system is a complex system with five interacting components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things).
Most of the mantle has homologous temperatures of 0.65–0.75 and experiences strain rates of per second. Stresses in the mantle are dependent on density, gravity, thermal expansion coefficients, temperature differences driving convection, and the distance over which convection occurs—all of which give stresses around a fraction of 3-30MPa.