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Bertrand's paradox: Different common-sense definitions of randomness give quite different results. Birthday paradox: In a random group of only 23 people, there is a better than 50/50 chance two of them have the same birthday. Borel's paradox: Conditional probability density functions are not invariant under coordinate transformations.
Known as word problems, they are used in mathematics education to teach students to connect real-world situations to the abstract language of mathematics. In general, to use mathematics for solving a real-world problem, the first step is to construct a mathematical model of the problem. This involves abstraction from the details of the problem ...
Rule 110 - most questions involving "can property X appear later" are undecidable. The problem of determining whether a quantum mechanical system has a spectral gap. [9] [10] Finding the capacity of an information-stable finite state machine channel. [11] In network coding, determining whether a network is solvable. [12] [13]
The probability is sometimes written to distinguish it from other functions and measure P to avoid having to define "P is a probability" and () is short for ({: ()}), where is the event space, is a random variable that is a function of (i.e., it depends upon ), and is some outcome of interest within the domain specified by (say, a particular ...
When said of the value of a variable assuming values from the non-negative extended reals {}, the meaning is usually "not infinite". For example, if the variance of a random variable is said to be finite, this implies it is a non-negative real number, possibly zero. In some contexts though, for example in "a small but finite amplitude", zero ...
In computational mathematics, a word problem is the problem of deciding whether two given expressions are equivalent with respect to a set of rewriting identities. A prototypical example is the word problem for groups, but there are many other instances as well.
The term non-parametric is not meant to imply that such models completely lack parameters but that the number and nature of the parameters are flexible and not fixed in advance. A histogram is a simple nonparametric estimate of a probability distribution. Kernel density estimation is another method to estimate a probability distribution.
A σ-algebra defines the set of events that can be measured, which in a probability context is equivalent to events that can be discriminated, or "questions that can be answered at time ". Therefore, a filtration is often used to represent the change in the set of events that can be measured, through gain or loss of information.