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Additionally, these insects tend to be relatively large, long-lived, active, and frequently aggregate. [2] Indeed, longer-lived insects are more likely to be chemically defended than short lived ones, as longevity increases apparency. [9] Throughout the arthropod and insect realm, however, chemical defenses are quite unevenly distributed.
Chemical defense is a strategy employed by many organisms to avoid consumption by producing toxic or repellent metabolites or chemical warnings which incite defensive behavioral changes. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The production of defensive chemicals occurs in plants, fungi, and bacteria, as well as invertebrate and vertebrate animals.
Viburnum lesquereuxii leaf with insect damage; Dakota Sandstone (Cretaceous) of Ellsworth County, Kansas. Scale bar is 10 mm. Knowledge of herbivory in geological time comes from three sources: fossilized plants, which may preserve evidence of defense (such as spines) or herbivory-related damage; the observation of plant debris in fossilised animal feces; and the structure of herbivore mouthparts.
Since 300 million years ago, insects have been known to consume nectar and pollinate flowers. In the Mesozoic, between 200 and 150 million years ago, insects' feeding patterns started to diversify. [7] The evolution of plant defenses to reduce cost and increase resistance to herbivores is a crucial component of the Optimal Defense Hypothesis.
Plants have evolved many defense mechanisms against insect herbivory in the 350 million years in which they have co-evolved.Such defenses can be broadly classified into two categories: (1) permanent, constitutive defenses, and (2) temporary, inducible defenses. [1]
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