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Although men in female-dominated occupations may contend with negative stereotypes about their masculinity, they may also experience certain benefits. In 1992 it was suggested that women in male-dominated occupations tended to hit a glass ceiling; while men in female-dominated occupations may hit a "glass escalator". [137]
During the 1950s, urban Chinese women started to join male-dominated fields. A way to promote women's new roles under collectivization was the formation of labor models. Labor models were idealized women who excelled in production and were used by the state to encouraged other women to follow their example and mobilize. [7]
In academia as well, much remains to be accomplished in terms of gender equality. Many departments, especially those in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields, are heavily male-dominated. [40] Women achieve disproportionately less prestige and success in academia than their male counterparts. [41]
Female engineering majors match their male counterparts in number who go into the engineering occupation, but physical and life sciences majors turned toward a broader range of careers outside STEM. [26] Within these career fields, there is a pattern of sexist hiring practices that lead to less women being hired in these fields. [26]
Men tend to occupy engineering, manufacturing, science, and construction fields while women dominate education, humanities and arts, social sciences, business, law, and health and welfare fields. [1] [87] However, important life decisions as occupations can yield other instances of sex segregation by impacting occupational sex imbalances and ...
Feminization of the workplace – Lower paying female-dominated occupations such as (1) food preparation, food-serving and other food-related occupations, and (2) personal care and service. [ 3 ] Feminization of smoking – The phrase torches of freedom is emblematic of the phenomenon of tobacco shifting from being seen as a male activity to ...
Recent research has connected the concept of stereotype threat with girls' motivations to avoid success as an individual difference, girls might avoid participation in certain male-dominated fields due to real and perceived obstacles to success in those fields, although there is little that can be proven (e.g., Spencer et al. 1999).
Women, including many women of color, flocked to jobs in the computer industry because it was seen as more meritocratic than other fields. [16] As computers became integrated into people's daily life, it was noticed that programmers had influence. Consequently, women were pushed out and the field became more male-dominated. [1]