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An osteoclast is a large multinucleated cell and human osteoclasts on bone typically have four nuclei [5] and are 150–200 μm in diameter. When osteoclast-inducing cytokines are used to convert macrophages to osteoclasts, very large cells that may reach 100 μm in diameter occur. These may have dozens of nuclei, and typically express major ...
Oligodendrocytes are a type of glial cell, non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system.They arise during development from oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), [8] which can be identified by their expression of a number of antigens, including the ganglioside GD3, [9] [10] [11] the NG2 chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan, and the platelet-derived growth factor-alpha receptor subunit (PDGF ...
The blood–brain barrier is formed by the brain capillary endothelium and excludes from the brain 100% of large-molecule neurotherapeutics and more than 98% of all small-molecule drugs. [28] Overcoming the difficulty of delivering therapeutic agents to specific regions of the brain presents a major challenge to treatment of most brain disorders.
Osteoclasts break down bone tissue, and along with osteoblasts and osteocytes form the structural components of bone. In the hollow within bones are many other cell types of the bone marrow . Components that are essential for osteoblast bone formation include mesenchymal stem cells (osteoblast precursor) and blood vessels that supply oxygen and ...
The various waves of OPCs could myelinate distinct regions of the brain, which suggests that distinct functional subpopulations of OPCs perform different functions. [ 37 ] Differentiation of OPCs into oligodendrocytes involves massive reorganization of cytoskeleton proteins ultimately resulting in increased cell branching and lamella extension ...
The calcitonin receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor localized to osteoclasts [20] as well kidney and brain cells. It is coupled to a G s α subunit, thus stimulating cAMP production by adenylate cyclase in target cells. It may also affect the ovaries in women and the testes in men. [citation needed]
The particles were also able to cross the blood-brain barrier. Earlier this year, a study was the first to link the presence of microplastics to higher rates of mortality in people who had higher ...
Osteocytes appear to be enriched in proteins that are resistant to hypoxia, which appears to be due to their embedded location and restricted oxygen supply. [14] Oxygen tension may regulate the differentiation of osteoblasts into osteocytes, and osteocyte hypoxia may play a role in disuse-mediated bone resorption.