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For example, several studies have shown that performance is better on, for example, a color discrimination (e.g. blue vs green) after the animal has learned another color discrimination (e.g. red vs orange) than it is after training on a different dimension such as an X shape versus an O shape. The reverse effect happens after training on forms.
All of these criteria are rarely met in animals, and only recently have convincing examples been adequately described. [12] Most identified examples have still not been conclusively proven to meet all criteria and primarily serve to suggest that teaching may occur while acknowledging that further research is needed. [12]
Infanticide; killing of young offspring by a mature animal of its own species. [23] Learned helplessness; failing to respond even though there are opportunities for the animal to help itself by avoiding unpleasant circumstances or by gaining positive rewards. [24] Lignophagia; eating wood. [10]
Each of these antecedents caused a learned behavior that is unfavourable, and this article [15] suggests some interventions to overcome the bad behavior. For example, in order to override antecedent 2, gain the students’ attention and immediately request something (e.g., a high five), before praising them and providing positive reinforcement ...
Chimpanzees have been observed using tools such as rocks and sticks to obtain better access to food. There are other learned activities that have been exhibited by other animals as well. Some examples of these activities that have been shown by varied animals are opening oysters, swimming, washing of food, and unsealing tin lids. [19]
The ability for socially-learned behaviors to stabilize across generations is also mitigated by the complexity of the behavior. Different individuals of a species, like crows, vary in their ability to use a complex tool. Finally, a behavior's stability in animal culture depends on the context in which they learn a behavior.
The presence or density of certain chemical receptors on cranial structures such as the brainstem often determines their importance in one species-typical behavior or in other species. For example, monogamous prairie voles have a high density of oxytocin receptors (OTRs) in the nucleus accumbens, while non-monogamous meadow voles do not. [9]
For example, many researchers focus on animals' understanding of intention, gaze, perspective, or knowledge (or rather, what another being has seen). Part of the difficulty in this line of research is that observed phenomena can often be explained as simple stimulus-response learning, since mental states can often be inferred based on observed ...