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The ground state of a quantum-mechanical system is its stationary state of lowest energy; the energy of the ground state is known as the zero-point energy of the system. An excited state is any state with energy greater than the ground state. In quantum field theory, the ground state is usually called the vacuum state or the vacuum. If more ...
The ground state (blue) is x 2 –y 2 orbitals; the excited orbitals are in green; the arrows illustrate inelastic x-ray spectroscopy. In quantum mechanics, an excited state of a system (such as an atom, molecule or nucleus) is any quantum state of the system that has a higher energy than the ground state (that
Electron excitation is the transfer of a bound electron to a more energetic, but still bound state. This can be done by photoexcitation (PE), where the electron absorbs a photon and gains all its energy [1] or by collisional excitation (CE), where the electron receives energy from a collision with another, energetic electron. [2]
The lightest atom that requires the second rule to determine the ground state term is titanium (Ti, Z = 22) with electron configuration 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 3d 2 4s 2. In this case the open shell is 3d 2 and the allowed terms include three singlets ( 1 S, 1 D, and 1 G) and two triplets ( 3 P and 3 F).
If the term V ee = e 2 /(4πε 0 | r 1 − r 2 |), representing the repulsion between the two electrons, were excluded, the Hamiltonian would become the sum of two hydrogen-like atom Hamiltonians with nuclear charge +2e. The ground state energy would then be 8E 1 = −109 eV, where E 1 is the Rydberg constant, and its ground state wavefunction ...
The manganese (Mn) atom has a 3d 5 electron configuration with five unpaired electrons all of parallel spin, corresponding to a 6 S ground state. [4] The superscript 6 is the value of the multiplicity , corresponding to five unpaired electrons with parallel spin in accordance with Hund's rule.
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Topological degeneracy can be used to protect qubits which allows topological quantum computation. [2] It is believed that topological degeneracy implies topological order (or long-range entanglement [3]) in the ground state. [4] Many-body states with topological degeneracy are described by topological quantum field theory at low energies.