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In evolutionary biology, parental investment is the expenditure of time and effort towards rearing offspring that benefits the offspring's evolutionary fitness at a cost to parents' ability to invest in other components of the species' fitness. Parental care requires resources from one or both parents that increases the fitness of their ...
The biologist Thierry Lodé proposed (2001, 2012) five modes of reproduction based on the relationship between the zygote (fertilised egg) and the parents: [1] [2]. Ovuliparity: fertilisation is external, the oocytes being released into the environment and fertilised outside the body by the male. [1]
The provision of care, by either males or females, is presumed to increase growth rates, quality, and/or survival of young, and hence ultimately increase the inclusive fitness of parents. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] In a variety of vertebrate species (e.g., about 80% of birds [ 5 ] and about 6% of mammals), [ 6 ] both males and females invest heavily in ...
Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parent" or parents. There are two forms of reproduction: asexual and sexual.
Alloparental care has many benefits for the young as well as the biological parents of the young. It occurs when there is a high energetic command of the biological parents and the group living of these animals. [4] Alloparenting helps to reduce the stresses on these animals and reduce the overall energetic demands of having offspring. [4]
Finally, helpers may derive inclusive fitness benefits from influencing the extra-pair behaviour of their parents. [31] For example, by preventing their mothers from engaging in extra-pair matings, they can help their biological fathers protect their paternity and so increase their relatedness to future members of the cooperatively breeding group.
Sexual selection is an evolutionary concept that has been used to explain why, in some species, male and female individuals behave differently in selecting mates. In 1930, Ronald Fisher wrote The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, [3] in which he introduced the modern concept of parental investment, introduced the sexy son hypothesis, and introduced Fisher's principle.
As the most celebrated argument in evolutionary biology, (Edwards, 1998, pp. 564–569) Fisher's principle is a staple of popular science books on evolution. For example, see: Gould, Stephen Jay (2002). The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. pp. 648– 649, 678, 692. Dawkins, Richard; Wong, Yan (2004). "The Seal's Tale".