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  2. Incomplete gamma function - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incomplete_gamma_function

    Repeated application of the recurrence relation for the lower incomplete gamma function leads to the power series expansion: [2] (,) = = (+) (+) = = (+ +). Given the rapid growth in absolute value of Γ(z + k) when k → ∞, and the fact that the reciprocal of Γ(z) is an entire function, the coefficients in the rightmost sum are well-defined, and locally the sum converges uniformly for all ...

  3. Lower envelope - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_envelope

    The upper envelope or pointwise maximum is defined symmetrically. For an infinite set of functions, the same notions may be defined using the infimum in place of the minimum, and the supremum in place of the maximum. [1] For continuous functions from a given class, the lower or upper envelope is a piecewise function whose pieces are from the ...

  4. Floor and ceiling functions - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_and_ceiling_functions

    In mathematics, the floor function is the function that takes as input a real number x, and gives as output the greatest integer less than or equal to x, denoted ⌊x⌋ or floor(x). Similarly, the ceiling function maps x to the least integer greater than or equal to x , denoted ⌈ x ⌉ or ceil( x ) .

  5. LU decomposition - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LU_decomposition

    Given an input matrix and a desired low rank , the randomized LU returns permutation matrices , and lower/upper trapezoidal matrices , of size and respectively, such that with high probability ‖ ‖ +, where is a constant that depends on the parameters of the algorithm and + is the (+)-th singular value of the input matrix .

  6. Semi-continuity - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-continuity

    In mathematical analysis, semicontinuity (or semi-continuity) is a property of extended real-valued functions that is weaker than continuity.An extended real-valued function is upper (respectively, lower) semicontinuous at a point if, roughly speaking, the function values for arguments near are not much higher (respectively, lower) than ().

  7. Raising and lowering indices - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raising_and_lowering_indices

    We need not raise or lower all indices at once: it is perfectly fine to raise or lower a single index. Lowering an index of an ( r , s ) {\displaystyle (r,s)} tensor gives a ( r − 1 , s + 1 ) {\displaystyle (r-1,s+1)} tensor, while raising an index gives a ( r + 1 , s − 1 ) {\displaystyle (r+1,s-1)} (where r , s {\displaystyle r,s} have ...

  8. Bilevel optimization - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilevel_optimization

    Bilevel optimization is a special kind of optimization where one problem is embedded (nested) within another. The outer optimization task is commonly referred to as the upper-level optimization task, and the inner optimization task is commonly referred to as the lower-level optimization task.

  9. Upper and lower bounds - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_and_lower_bounds

    The set S = {42} has 42 as both an upper bound and a lower bound; all other numbers are either an upper bound or a lower bound for that S. Every subset of the natural numbers has a lower bound since the natural numbers have a least element (0 or 1, depending on convention). An infinite subset of the natural numbers cannot be bounded from above.